[Darwin]

Hier komen een aantal teksten over vroegere en meer recente invasies van Europa, bekeken door de ogen van moslims.

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EUROPE UNDER MUSLIM RULE

Dr Mohsin Farooqi takes a look at the history of Muslim rule in Europe to remind the Muslims Ummah of its glorious past

Not only the young Muslim generation but also the intellectuals have been suffering from a feeling of inferiority complex. Some of the reasons of this situation might be that our youth are not conscious about the historical facts or it is lack of confidence on the part of Muslim intellectuals or disunity among Muslim countries. They observe the backwardness of Muslim society only and shut their eyes about its magnificent past and potentialities of the present and future.

The superior position of Europeans in the fields of science, education, military and industry have dazzled their eyes mind and soul. This has influenced not only the thinking but also way of life. In short the condition has rendered them thought less and they have become blind followers of western culture. So much so that they do not appreciate anything if it is not communicated in western style.

Muslims, the leader of three continents once, are now running madly after every glittering object. But all that glitters is not gold. The western civilisation is hardly a century and a half old. The near divine right of world leadership has been slipping out of western hands. Muslims held the leadership up to 1000 years as regards, Europe, Asia and Africa are concerned. Not only that but they have left everlasting impact upon human civilisation.

Sufficient knowledge about Muslim conquests, rule and its impact in the field of administration, architecture militarism, science and mathematics which enabled them to rule for such a long period must be made available to the young minds. The present trend of blind following of western culture on the part of young generation may by checked before it becomes too late.

It should be made clear that the victories won in the battles fronts and on conference tables were not due to the reason that they were Arabs or Turks but because they were righteous Muslims. The large number of Generals and statesmen who distinguished themselves in the early days of Muslim conquests were not only Arabs, Kurds, Pathans or Turks but were also Berbers, Tatars, Spanish, Greeks, Albanians, Slavs and Italians who embraced Islam. It was the same with almost all naval commanders. They were of foreign origin who had experience as pirates and had embraced Islam. The crew who manned the Ottoman Navy were mainly Greeks the same was with a number of statesmen who were of Albanian origin.

Some glimpses of the impact of Muslim rule over Europe are given but research in this field is essential. History tells that the inhabitants of conquered lands, whether from political motives or out of conviction, eagerly embraced Islam. Indeed the Muslims of Bosnia (Yugoslavia), Bulgaria and Albania came to be known as highly fanatical devotees of their faith, with Islam as the factor dividing them form their Christian fellow countrymen, though they were of the same blood.

Another authority says, "If there had been any efficient or united leadership of Muslim forces there can be little doubt that the whole of Italy would have fallen to them." (Reuben Levy).

On another occasion we know that the second great siege of Vienna began on July 15, 1683. The Emperor and his family fled to Bavaria. The fortifications of Vienna had been much neglected and offered no serious resistance. There can be little doubt if Kara Mustafa had pressed the siege with vigour, Vienna must have fallen. It was said, that the Osmanli army with its enormous superiority in number, might easily have carried the city by storm, But that Kara Mustapha hoped to get it by capitulation in which case the wealth of the city would be at his own disposal (Lord Eversley).

In the field of administration we should know that. “The condition of the peasantry in Turkey was distinctly better than that of the serfs in Hungary and Russia. The Greek population of Morea preferred Turkish Rule to that of the Venetians. A certain number of Hungarian peasants voluntarily left their country and settled under more humane government of Turkey in Roumelia”. (Lord Eversley)

Thus we observe that knowledge of history not only provide basic knowledge about facts but also inspire us to develop.

It is the force of historical traditions which compel people to be firm and steadfast in the battlefield, encourage them to snatch victory, warn them not to hit on the back of the fleeing foe, to be just with the vanquished and to prefer the thirst of others to one’s own and ask Salatin to offer his own horse to Richard III of England.


Albania

Turks in 1372 captured Albania. The rulers accepted the Suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey. Turkish occupation continued until 1878 when the big powers of Europe decided that it might be made independent. However, the nominal hold continued till 1912 when it finally became independent and that too under a Muslim King Zog.

During 1939-44, Italy occupied it. After the defeat of Italy it was under a socialist regime. Muslims are 73 percent of population, another source says 68 percent, mainly Sunnite. Its population was about 25 lakhs.


Austria

The first encounter with Austria started in 1500 in a naval battle. Turks defeated the combined naval force of Austria, Pope and Venice.

The capital of Austria was attacked in 1529. It was seized for full three weeks. The army was assisted by Turkish Navy which reached there through Danube. A large number of peasants of Vienna district were made prisoners. In 1532 Solayman the Magnificent conquered famous fortress of Guns. He did not march forwards towards Vienna this time but turned aside Styria and subjugated the area. In 1538, Solayman defeated the combined forces of Pope and Emperor of Austria together in a naval battle of Travesa. In 1593, Emperor of Austria, Maximilian was defeated. The areas of Gran and Erlu were secured to Turks.

Austria used to pay 30,000 ducats yearly which Turks regarded as a tribute. In 1596 a battle took place at Cerestes. The Turks gave crushing defeat to the Austrians but with heavy losses. In 1606 according to the treaty of Silvatork the fortress of Gran, and Gradiscka (now in Italy) were ceded to Turkey and a sum of 2,00,000 ducats was paid. The districts or Raab and Komorin were returned to Austria.

In 1664, in the battle of St. Gotthard, Austria defeated Turkey. But in spite of the defeat, the peace terms were favourable and the terms added some territory to the Ottoman Empire, Serivar and Neuhesel and four other districts. In 1668, Kara Mustafa reached up to the walls of Vienna and the second seize started. The emperor and his family fled to Bavaria but Turks withdrew.

Ahmed Kiuprilli, Albanian in origin, Grand Vazioer of Turkish empire reached up to Styria. Seven districts were occupied by Muslims, four were to remain under Muslims and three were returned to Austria. Austria was again defeated in 1739 at Kortzka.


BULGARIA

Its occupation by Turkey was started in 1363 but the whole country was conquered by 1393. It remained under Muslim rule for 551 years. In 1870 Turkey recognized the separate existence of Bulgaria, though up to 1886 it remained nominally under Turkey. In 1914 its independence was recognized. The Muslim population is 14 percent. Muslims are under a Grand Mufti. There are six Regional Mufti Boards. There were 1180 mosques in 1970.


CYPRUS

In 674 AD, it was raided and in 653 AD Amir Muaviya conquered it and stationed a garrison of 12,000 men on the island. It remained under Muslim rule up to 966AD.

It was captured by Kara Mustafa again in 1570-71, during the reign of Sultan Selim II. It was handed over to British in 1878 for administration. The British used to pay tribute more than the income they received from Cyprus. The rest of the amount used to be paid by the British Treasury. At the advent of the World War I in 5th November, 1914 it was annexed to the British Empire. But this was recognized.


CZECHOSLOVAKIA

The state came into being after World War I in 1918. Most of the area was part of Hungary and the whole of Hungary including Bohemia came under Turkish rule during the reign of Solayman the Magnificent in 1526. Ahmed Kiuprilli captured Komorn on River Raab in 1663. It was an autonomous state paying tribute to Turkey. It was lost to Muslims in 1781. Thus it remained under Muslim rule for about two centuries.


FRANCE

It remained under Arabs during 719-750 AD i.e. for forty years in the first campaigns. The main areas were in southeastern France. Some of the areas were Corcassone, Narbonne, Avignon, Bourdeaus and Poitiers. In the second attempt Marseilles, Nice, Grenbole and Fraxinet remained under Muslim rule through campaign by sea during 889-975. Corsica island remained under Arabs form 906-970. This shows that French territory remained for 40 years at one time, on another occasion for 96 years and in third instance for 64 years under Muslim rule.

First Attempt:

In 719 Arabs started pouring in Septimania, in southern France. They occupied cities of Carcassone, Narbonne and Avignon in 730. Spain’s new Governor Abdul Rahman planned to conquer whole of France and started capturing Geronne and Bourdeaus. He marched forward across river Loire with the object of capturing Tours. He fought a battle in 732 somewhere between Tours and Poiters and was defeated utterly. No further attempt was made by Muslims on this side.

Second attempt:

On the second campaign Muslims attacked the coasts of the Province on the frontier. But the last attack had a much wider expanse and extended from Dauphine right upto the borders of Germany. Province was conquered and the Emirate head quarter was Fraxinet, now the village of Gade Frainet which is situated at the foot of Mt. Alps. The period starts from 889. By the year 906 Muslims crossed the Dauphine, crossing Mont. Cenis and made themselves masters of the Novalese Abbey which was situated in the Valley of Suse on the frontier of Piedmont. In 911, all the passes of Mount Alps between France and Italy were controlled by Muslims.

In 908 Muslim adventures came to the coast of the Longuedoc. In 920 Muslims crossed Pyrenees, laid waste a considerable part of Gascony right upto the gates of Toulouse. Marseilles and Aix were invaded. In 935, they advanced upto Liguia. In 939, they conquered the district of Valais and Trantaine country fell on their feet and district of Valais and Trantaine country fell on their feet and in 940 Frejus, a port. Abdul Rahman III of Spain did not attach much weight to the colony and their incursions into the interior. Khalifa of Cordoba was regarded as a protector of Emirate of Faxinet. Muslims were driven out of Grenoble in 975 . However, Muslims established themselves in Gap and Embrun in the area of Hantes Alps.

Narbonne remained for 40 years. An attempt was made again to capture Narbonne in 1019 AD the Comarague country in South France was under Muslims for some time.

Third Attempt:

In 1003, the Spanish Muslims attacked the neighborhood of Antibes and carried off with them among others a number of clergy. In 1019, Muslims disembarked opposite Narbonne. In 1047 the Island of Lerins which was under Muslim domination 300 years ago was invaded and number of monks were carried away. The incursions into France by sea continued up to the great development of the French Navy and did not really came to an end till the occupation of Algiers by the French in 1832. The town of Maguelone, Port Sarrazin, Martigues and Hyueres used to be the places where buildings were seen which considered to be Sarcenic in style.


Greece

Greece started coming under Muslims form 652 and remained as such up to 1918 a period of 1266 years. Rhodes was attacked in 652 AD, during the reign of Amir Muaviya. A Muslim colony was established. Later on it was withdrawn. It was again conquered by Turks during the reign of Solayman the magnificent in 1532. It was conquered by Muslims from Spain during the period of Khalifa Hakam. It remained under Muslim hands upto 961 when it was taken by Byzantine Empire.

The Island was again attacked by Turks in 1645. The chief city Candia was laid siege to for 25 years. The city fell in 1670. It was transferred to the administration of Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم Ali of Egypt for ten years i.e. 1830-40. It was then restored to Turkey. In August 1920 it was given back to Greece.


THRACE

In 1353, the Muslim Rule extended to Thrace in Greece. The Byzantine Empire became subservient and almost a vassal to Turkey.

In 1397, the rest of Greece was conquered during Bayezid I and Greek Empire became a tributary to the Sultan.

The suzerainty of the Sultan over Greece was abolished in 1832, then Greece extended form Archilous to Sperikius. The whole Acarnamia and greater part of Thessally where the population was almost wholly Greeks and Crete remained under Turkey. In 1882 whole of Thessallly ceded to Greece. In 1908, Crete proclaimed union with Greece but it was recognized in 1913. It got macedonia in 1914.


HUNGARY

Since 1393, Bayezed commenced a system of raids into Hungary for plunder only. King of Hungary appealed in 1395 to the Christian powers of Europe and backed by Pope, France, England, Scotland, Italy, Germany, Knights of Jerusalem, Romania and Yugoslavia started in the nature of crusade. This combined force was defeated by Muslims at Nicopolis.

Turks after 1421 were engaged in constant raids into Hungary. The bordering districts were virtually under Muslims. Hungary, Austria, Romania, Venice, Genoa and Pope joined together against Muslims. They were defeated and Treaty of Szegeddin was made in 1444, by taking oath on the Bible and the Quran. The treaty was broken by Christian Powers. War again started and resulted in utter defeat of Hungarians and their allies under Hunyadi. At Kassova again Hunyadi and allies were defeated.

In 1526, Solyman the Magnificent, defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs. King Lous was killed and Budapest, capital of Hungary was captured. A Turkish nominee was made king of Hungary and it became a tributary state. A rebellion broke out at the instance of Austria. Budapest was again captured in 1525 and the vassal was again reinstated. Most of Hungary was under him.

In 1593 Hungary was again defeated at Ceresties. According to Treaty of Silvatorok in 1606 Muslims were confirmed in the possession of one half of Hungary but the other half was freed from tribute.

It was lost to Muslims in 1718. The Muslim Rule in Hungary remained for two hundred years. Its influence in the southern areas remained for three centuries.


ITALY

Sicily was subjected to raids from Muslims in Egypt between 652-70 and even Syracuse, the capital, was laid under tribute but it owed allegiance to the Roman Empire till 826. It was conquered by Moors from North Africa. In 962, the Island was completely Muslim. Their dominance remained upto 1060.

Muslims from Sicily used to attack Calabria, Compania, Brantia, Locania and Appolia in South Italy and occupied them temporarily. If there had been any united leadership of Muslim forces there can be little doubt that the whole of Italy would have fallen to them. But unfortunately the Amirs of Sicily insisted upon their own independence while the Moors had severed connection with Caliphate of Baghdad and this mutual bickering thwarted the establishment of Muslim rule over the whole of the Italy.


SARDINIA

The first expedition to Sardinia was sent in 707 AD which conquered it. The second was sent by Musa in 712. During the reign of Abdur-Rahman, in 773, Muslims exposed it to attacks. In 808 Spanish Muslims attacked Sardinia but were defeated. In 809, African Muslims attacked and in 820 a Muslim fleet attacked it.

Muslims were masters of Sardinia in about 970. Fatimide Muiz (953-975) passed through Sardinia on his way to new territories most probably in France, Italy and Switzerland. He stayed there for one year. The most famous Amir of Sardinia was Abdul Hasan Al-Mujahid in 1016. He came from Balearic Islands. The Island Sardinia remained under Muslim Rule for about 212 years.


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