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Oud 7 oktober 2002, 16:37   #1
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Hier komen een aantal teksten over vroegere en meer recente invasies van Europa, bekeken door de ogen van moslims.

De eerste 4 artikels komen van de site http://www.jamatdawa.org waar we op de homepage van onderstaande leuke animatie kunnen genieten





EUROPE UNDER MUSLIM RULE

Dr Mohsin Farooqi takes a look at the history of Muslim rule in Europe to remind the Muslims Ummah of its glorious past

Not only the young Muslim generation but also the intellectuals have been suffering from a feeling of inferiority complex. Some of the reasons of this situation might be that our youth are not conscious about the historical facts or it is lack of confidence on the part of Muslim intellectuals or disunity among Muslim countries. They observe the backwardness of Muslim society only and shut their eyes about its magnificent past and potentialities of the present and future.

The superior position of Europeans in the fields of science, education, military and industry have dazzled their eyes mind and soul. This has influenced not only the thinking but also way of life. In short the condition has rendered them thought less and they have become blind followers of western culture. So much so that they do not appreciate anything if it is not communicated in western style.

Muslims, the leader of three continents once, are now running madly after every glittering object. But all that glitters is not gold. The western civilisation is hardly a century and a half old. The near divine right of world leadership has been slipping out of western hands. Muslims held the leadership up to 1000 years as regards, Europe, Asia and Africa are concerned. Not only that but they have left everlasting impact upon human civilisation.

Sufficient knowledge about Muslim conquests, rule and its impact in the field of administration, architecture militarism, science and mathematics which enabled them to rule for such a long period must be made available to the young minds. The present trend of blind following of western culture on the part of young generation may by checked before it becomes too late.

It should be made clear that the victories won in the battles fronts and on conference tables were not due to the reason that they were Arabs or Turks but because they were righteous Muslims. The large number of Generals and statesmen who distinguished themselves in the early days of Muslim conquests were not only Arabs, Kurds, Pathans or Turks but were also Berbers, Tatars, Spanish, Greeks, Albanians, Slavs and Italians who embraced Islam. It was the same with almost all naval commanders. They were of foreign origin who had experience as pirates and had embraced Islam. The crew who manned the Ottoman Navy were mainly Greeks the same was with a number of statesmen who were of Albanian origin.

Some glimpses of the impact of Muslim rule over Europe are given but research in this field is essential. History tells that the inhabitants of conquered lands, whether from political motives or out of conviction, eagerly embraced Islam. Indeed the Muslims of Bosnia (Yugoslavia), Bulgaria and Albania came to be known as highly fanatical devotees of their faith, with Islam as the factor dividing them form their Christian fellow countrymen, though they were of the same blood.

Another authority says, "If there had been any efficient or united leadership of Muslim forces there can be little doubt that the whole of Italy would have fallen to them." (Reuben Levy).

On another occasion we know that the second great siege of Vienna began on July 15, 1683. The Emperor and his family fled to Bavaria. The fortifications of Vienna had been much neglected and offered no serious resistance. There can be little doubt if Kara Mustafa had pressed the siege with vigour, Vienna must have fallen. It was said, that the Osmanli army with its enormous superiority in number, might easily have carried the city by storm, But that Kara Mustapha hoped to get it by capitulation in which case the wealth of the city would be at his own disposal (Lord Eversley).

In the field of administration we should know that. “The condition of the peasantry in Turkey was distinctly better than that of the serfs in Hungary and Russia. The Greek population of Morea preferred Turkish Rule to that of the Venetians. A certain number of Hungarian peasants voluntarily left their country and settled under more humane government of Turkey in Roumelia”. (Lord Eversley)

Thus we observe that knowledge of history not only provide basic knowledge about facts but also inspire us to develop.

It is the force of historical traditions which compel people to be firm and steadfast in the battlefield, encourage them to snatch victory, warn them not to hit on the back of the fleeing foe, to be just with the vanquished and to prefer the thirst of others to one’s own and ask Salatin to offer his own horse to Richard III of England.


Albania

Turks in 1372 captured Albania. The rulers accepted the Suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey. Turkish occupation continued until 1878 when the big powers of Europe decided that it might be made independent. However, the nominal hold continued till 1912 when it finally became independent and that too under a Muslim King Zog.

During 1939-44, Italy occupied it. After the defeat of Italy it was under a socialist regime. Muslims are 73 percent of population, another source says 68 percent, mainly Sunnite. Its population was about 25 lakhs.


Austria

The first encounter with Austria started in 1500 in a naval battle. Turks defeated the combined naval force of Austria, Pope and Venice.

The capital of Austria was attacked in 1529. It was seized for full three weeks. The army was assisted by Turkish Navy which reached there through Danube. A large number of peasants of Vienna district were made prisoners. In 1532 Solayman the Magnificent conquered famous fortress of Guns. He did not march forwards towards Vienna this time but turned aside Styria and subjugated the area. In 1538, Solayman defeated the combined forces of Pope and Emperor of Austria together in a naval battle of Travesa. In 1593, Emperor of Austria, Maximilian was defeated. The areas of Gran and Erlu were secured to Turks.

Austria used to pay 30,000 ducats yearly which Turks regarded as a tribute. In 1596 a battle took place at Cerestes. The Turks gave crushing defeat to the Austrians but with heavy losses. In 1606 according to the treaty of Silvatork the fortress of Gran, and Gradiscka (now in Italy) were ceded to Turkey and a sum of 2,00,000 ducats was paid. The districts or Raab and Komorin were returned to Austria.

In 1664, in the battle of St. Gotthard, Austria defeated Turkey. But in spite of the defeat, the peace terms were favourable and the terms added some territory to the Ottoman Empire, Serivar and Neuhesel and four other districts. In 1668, Kara Mustafa reached up to the walls of Vienna and the second seize started. The emperor and his family fled to Bavaria but Turks withdrew.

Ahmed Kiuprilli, Albanian in origin, Grand Vazioer of Turkish empire reached up to Styria. Seven districts were occupied by Muslims, four were to remain under Muslims and three were returned to Austria. Austria was again defeated in 1739 at Kortzka.


BULGARIA

Its occupation by Turkey was started in 1363 but the whole country was conquered by 1393. It remained under Muslim rule for 551 years. In 1870 Turkey recognized the separate existence of Bulgaria, though up to 1886 it remained nominally under Turkey. In 1914 its independence was recognized. The Muslim population is 14 percent. Muslims are under a Grand Mufti. There are six Regional Mufti Boards. There were 1180 mosques in 1970.


CYPRUS

In 674 AD, it was raided and in 653 AD Amir Muaviya conquered it and stationed a garrison of 12,000 men on the island. It remained under Muslim rule up to 966AD.

It was captured by Kara Mustafa again in 1570-71, during the reign of Sultan Selim II. It was handed over to British in 1878 for administration. The British used to pay tribute more than the income they received from Cyprus. The rest of the amount used to be paid by the British Treasury. At the advent of the World War I in 5th November, 1914 it was annexed to the British Empire. But this was recognized.


CZECHOSLOVAKIA

The state came into being after World War I in 1918. Most of the area was part of Hungary and the whole of Hungary including Bohemia came under Turkish rule during the reign of Solayman the Magnificent in 1526. Ahmed Kiuprilli captured Komorn on River Raab in 1663. It was an autonomous state paying tribute to Turkey. It was lost to Muslims in 1781. Thus it remained under Muslim rule for about two centuries.


FRANCE

It remained under Arabs during 719-750 AD i.e. for forty years in the first campaigns. The main areas were in southeastern France. Some of the areas were Corcassone, Narbonne, Avignon, Bourdeaus and Poitiers. In the second attempt Marseilles, Nice, Grenbole and Fraxinet remained under Muslim rule through campaign by sea during 889-975. Corsica island remained under Arabs form 906-970. This shows that French territory remained for 40 years at one time, on another occasion for 96 years and in third instance for 64 years under Muslim rule.

First Attempt:

In 719 Arabs started pouring in Septimania, in southern France. They occupied cities of Carcassone, Narbonne and Avignon in 730. Spain’s new Governor Abdul Rahman planned to conquer whole of France and started capturing Geronne and Bourdeaus. He marched forward across river Loire with the object of capturing Tours. He fought a battle in 732 somewhere between Tours and Poiters and was defeated utterly. No further attempt was made by Muslims on this side.

Second attempt:

On the second campaign Muslims attacked the coasts of the Province on the frontier. But the last attack had a much wider expanse and extended from Dauphine right upto the borders of Germany. Province was conquered and the Emirate head quarter was Fraxinet, now the village of Gade Frainet which is situated at the foot of Mt. Alps. The period starts from 889. By the year 906 Muslims crossed the Dauphine, crossing Mont. Cenis and made themselves masters of the Novalese Abbey which was situated in the Valley of Suse on the frontier of Piedmont. In 911, all the passes of Mount Alps between France and Italy were controlled by Muslims.

In 908 Muslim adventures came to the coast of the Longuedoc. In 920 Muslims crossed Pyrenees, laid waste a considerable part of Gascony right upto the gates of Toulouse. Marseilles and Aix were invaded. In 935, they advanced upto Liguia. In 939, they conquered the district of Valais and Trantaine country fell on their feet and district of Valais and Trantaine country fell on their feet and in 940 Frejus, a port. Abdul Rahman III of Spain did not attach much weight to the colony and their incursions into the interior. Khalifa of Cordoba was regarded as a protector of Emirate of Faxinet. Muslims were driven out of Grenoble in 975 . However, Muslims established themselves in Gap and Embrun in the area of Hantes Alps.

Narbonne remained for 40 years. An attempt was made again to capture Narbonne in 1019 AD the Comarague country in South France was under Muslims for some time.

Third Attempt:

In 1003, the Spanish Muslims attacked the neighborhood of Antibes and carried off with them among others a number of clergy. In 1019, Muslims disembarked opposite Narbonne. In 1047 the Island of Lerins which was under Muslim domination 300 years ago was invaded and number of monks were carried away. The incursions into France by sea continued up to the great development of the French Navy and did not really came to an end till the occupation of Algiers by the French in 1832. The town of Maguelone, Port Sarrazin, Martigues and Hyueres used to be the places where buildings were seen which considered to be Sarcenic in style.


Greece

Greece started coming under Muslims form 652 and remained as such up to 1918 a period of 1266 years. Rhodes was attacked in 652 AD, during the reign of Amir Muaviya. A Muslim colony was established. Later on it was withdrawn. It was again conquered by Turks during the reign of Solayman the magnificent in 1532. It was conquered by Muslims from Spain during the period of Khalifa Hakam. It remained under Muslim hands upto 961 when it was taken by Byzantine Empire.

The Island was again attacked by Turks in 1645. The chief city Candia was laid siege to for 25 years. The city fell in 1670. It was transferred to the administration of Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم Ali of Egypt for ten years i.e. 1830-40. It was then restored to Turkey. In August 1920 it was given back to Greece.


THRACE

In 1353, the Muslim Rule extended to Thrace in Greece. The Byzantine Empire became subservient and almost a vassal to Turkey.

In 1397, the rest of Greece was conquered during Bayezid I and Greek Empire became a tributary to the Sultan.

The suzerainty of the Sultan over Greece was abolished in 1832, then Greece extended form Archilous to Sperikius. The whole Acarnamia and greater part of Thessally where the population was almost wholly Greeks and Crete remained under Turkey. In 1882 whole of Thessallly ceded to Greece. In 1908, Crete proclaimed union with Greece but it was recognized in 1913. It got macedonia in 1914.


HUNGARY

Since 1393, Bayezed commenced a system of raids into Hungary for plunder only. King of Hungary appealed in 1395 to the Christian powers of Europe and backed by Pope, France, England, Scotland, Italy, Germany, Knights of Jerusalem, Romania and Yugoslavia started in the nature of crusade. This combined force was defeated by Muslims at Nicopolis.

Turks after 1421 were engaged in constant raids into Hungary. The bordering districts were virtually under Muslims. Hungary, Austria, Romania, Venice, Genoa and Pope joined together against Muslims. They were defeated and Treaty of Szegeddin was made in 1444, by taking oath on the Bible and the Quran. The treaty was broken by Christian Powers. War again started and resulted in utter defeat of Hungarians and their allies under Hunyadi. At Kassova again Hunyadi and allies were defeated.

In 1526, Solyman the Magnificent, defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohacs. King Lous was killed and Budapest, capital of Hungary was captured. A Turkish nominee was made king of Hungary and it became a tributary state. A rebellion broke out at the instance of Austria. Budapest was again captured in 1525 and the vassal was again reinstated. Most of Hungary was under him.

In 1593 Hungary was again defeated at Ceresties. According to Treaty of Silvatorok in 1606 Muslims were confirmed in the possession of one half of Hungary but the other half was freed from tribute.

It was lost to Muslims in 1718. The Muslim Rule in Hungary remained for two hundred years. Its influence in the southern areas remained for three centuries.


ITALY

Sicily was subjected to raids from Muslims in Egypt between 652-70 and even Syracuse, the capital, was laid under tribute but it owed allegiance to the Roman Empire till 826. It was conquered by Moors from North Africa. In 962, the Island was completely Muslim. Their dominance remained upto 1060.

Muslims from Sicily used to attack Calabria, Compania, Brantia, Locania and Appolia in South Italy and occupied them temporarily. If there had been any united leadership of Muslim forces there can be little doubt that the whole of Italy would have fallen to them. But unfortunately the Amirs of Sicily insisted upon their own independence while the Moors had severed connection with Caliphate of Baghdad and this mutual bickering thwarted the establishment of Muslim rule over the whole of the Italy.


SARDINIA

The first expedition to Sardinia was sent in 707 AD which conquered it. The second was sent by Musa in 712. During the reign of Abdur-Rahman, in 773, Muslims exposed it to attacks. In 808 Spanish Muslims attacked Sardinia but were defeated. In 809, African Muslims attacked and in 820 a Muslim fleet attacked it.

Muslims were masters of Sardinia in about 970. Fatimide Muiz (953-975) passed through Sardinia on his way to new territories most probably in France, Italy and Switzerland. He stayed there for one year. The most famous Amir of Sardinia was Abdul Hasan Al-Mujahid in 1016. He came from Balearic Islands. The Island Sardinia remained under Muslim Rule for about 212 years.


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EUROPE UNDER MUSLIM RULE - PART II

Dr Mohsin Farooqi


Spain And Portugal

Spain was attacked for the first attack in 710 A.D. by Tariq bin Ziyad, a Berber Muslim from Algeria. Up to 719 A.D. the whole of the Iberian peninsula comprising Spain and Portugal was subjugated. This continued up to 1492 A.D. Thus Muslims ruled Spain for 782 years.


Balearic Islands

Even before 773 A.D., the Balearic Islands were subject to attack from Spain during the reign of Abdur Rahman. By 814 A.D., Spanish Muslims became masters of these islands, including Majorica and Iveza. The most important ruler was Amir Abdul Hasan al Mujahid. During 1016 A.D., he was a symbol of terror for neighbouring islands and coastline of southern France and western Italy. These islands remained under Muslim rule till 1228, when Jayem I captured Majorica. The other islands were taken over within the next three or four years. Thus, these Islands remained under Muslims rule for about 418 years.

On the request of Moors of Garanda who were suppressed by the Christian army in Spain, Turks attacked Spanish coastal area and ravaged it. In about 1490, the Muslims were ousted from Portugal and in 1492 from Spain.


Switzerland

In 889 A.D, Muslims entered Switzerland through Valais and advanced right into the country of Grisons, Coire, Lake Geneva, and Jura Mountains. They conquered Great St. Bernad, was called Mount Jupiter. It is situated between Valais and the valley of Aosta and lies between Switzerland and Italy. The Muslims after becoming master of this extremely important point, entered the neighbouring lands.

In 939 A.D., the Muslims overran the whole of Switzerland and advanced right up to the gates of St.Gall near the Lake Constance. They were driven out of Mount St. Bernard in about 960 A.D and from Switzerland in 975 A.D. after ruling for about 86 years.


Turkey

Turks were the most active among the Muslims in Europe. They were staunch believers and have been fighting excellently for the cause. In 1357 when Islamic possessions in Western Europe had shrunk to the Kingdom of Granad, the Turks in the East brought the standard of Islam across Dardanelles into Europe and the Byzantine Emperor was brought to his knees. Within 11 years, they overran nearly the whole of the country, south of the Balkans including the greater part of Bulgaria, Greece and Yugoslavia so much so that the capital was shifted from Brusa in Asia to Adrianople in Europe.

But the system of succession to the throne, lack of interest in modern knowledge, preference of tribe to Islamic brotherhood, disunity among Muslim peoples and conspiracies of European powers resulted in the downfall of the Ottoman Empire.

The early Turkish Sultans used to lead their armies along with the standard of Islam and cloak of Holy Prophet. Some of them were given titles by Europeans -- Bayezid, the Thunderbolt; Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم , the Conqueror; and Solayman, the Magnificent. These Sultans with the support of newly converted Muslims from Europe controlled East Europe, North Africa and nearly the whole of Middle East for about fice centuries. They were masters of Mediterranean Sea so much so that they defeated the combined naval forces of South European countries a number of times. The Spanish and Italian coastal areas were ravaged and conquered by them. Black Sea was a Turkish lake. During World War I, 100,000 British soldiers commanded by a British general surrendered before Turks and the Third Army of Mustafa Kamal gave crushing defeat to Russian armies in Caucasus. On the basis of victory, they were able to drive Italians, French, Greek and the British from Turk mainland or shores through a direct fight or diplomacy.

But the system of succession to the throne, lack of interest in modern knowledge, preference of tribe to Islamic brotherhood, disunity among Muslim peoples and conspiracies of European powers resulted in the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. Turkey was termed a sick man of Europe ans dismemberment of Ottoman Empire was called Eastern Question. All European powers were united to oust Turkey from Europe. Thus in 1918, European Turkey shrunk to a tiny fringe in Europe. Out of all those lands once held in Europe, Turkey now owns Eastern Thrace with its old capitals of Adrianople and Constantinople having a population of about 2,500,000. among all the Muslim countries, Turkey is now a symbol of democracy and constitutionalism.


Yugoslavia

Turkey got hold of Yugoslavia in 1371. Up to 1389, most of Yugoslavia had come under Turkish rule. It remained under Muslim rule for 538 years. In 1867, Turkish garrison in Belgrade, the occupation of which had been confirmed by Treaty of Paris, was withdrawn by Turkey. In 1878, Serbia and Montenegro became independent states, Bosnia and Herzegovina were granted autonomy under Turkish rule. In 1908, the two provinces were annexed by Austria. Bosnian soldiers left Fez, while Austria abandoned Novi Bazaar besides paying four million pounds.

The religious communities are now not related with the state and are free to perform their religious rituals. All religious communities recognised under the law enjoy equal rights. Muslims were 12.3 per cent of the total population.

The Muslim Religious Union were in majority in four republics -- Sarajevo, Skopje, Titograd and Pristina. The highest authority is the supreme Synod of the Islamic Religious Community, which elects the Reis-ul-ulema and the Supreme religious community has about 2000 clergymen. The following number of schools shows position of Muslim minorities other than Yugoslav Muslims.

Kind of Schools ... Elementary ... Secondary ... Teachers Training

Turkish ................... 56 ................. 5 ....................... 7
Albanian ................ 104 ............... 30 ..................... 80


NOTE

The first edition of Europe Under Muslim Rule' was published in 1947. since then great historical events have taken place, such as

1) End of the Soviet Union.
2) Six new Muslim Countries have emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union i.e.
1.Azerbaijan
2.Kazakhstan
3.Kirghizistan
4.Tajikistan
5.Turkmenistan
6.Uzbekistan
3) Dismemberment of Yugoslavia and consequent emergence of two Muslim countries, Bosnia, Macedonia.
4) All the above eight countries are members of the U.N. and that of Organisation of Islamic Countries.
5) Independence gained by Eritrea from Ethiopia after militant struggle. It is now a Muslim majority country.
6) Palestine emerged as an independent country on the world map. Israel is going to ink an agreement with Palestinians, details of which are being worked out.

Geographically the above first six countries are located in the Asian continent but they have been included in Europe on the basis of the following reasons.

Most of the area of the Soviet Union, now Russia, is situated in Asia but Soviet Union as well as Russia have also been considered as European. The most part of Turkey is in Asia but it is a member of the European Community.

Both Bosnia and Macedonia are culturally part and parcel of Europe.

Similarly, Egypt is attached with Asia although major portion of it is in Africa.

(A) The six republics culturally belong to Europe and they place themselves in Europe.
(B) They took part in European Games as their members.
(C) They have signed agreements to get NATO membership.
(D) They are all members of Common Wealth of Independent States under Russia.
(E) They have a common currency of Rouble.
(F) Russian troops are stationed in Tajikistan as in other countries.

In view of the above arguements, these countries have been included in this booklet.

Alexander Bennigsen and mrine, Broxup wrote a gook in 1983 ''The Islamic Threat to the Soviet State.'' The Most significant aspect of the research has been given in the last sentence of the book.

"Barring a major crisis such as foreign war the present status quo in the Soviet Union will be uncompromisingly preserved as long as possible, the final inescapable violent crisis will be delayed but for how long.''

He predicted that this is going to happen within a period of 20 years i.e. 2005. but to the astonishment of all, the prolonged Afghan War compelled Russian to withdraw its troops before the ''bang'' and within a period of eight years this came as true. The same was true for Russian Federation. The prolonged war in Chechnya like Afghan war will destroy the already crippled Russian economy. The inescapable is bound to blast very soon, Insha Allaah سبحانه وتعالى . The following new Muslim independent states will be added to the list.

......Area .................. Sq. Miles ............ Population 1989

1. Abkhazia ................ 3320 ...................... 5,37,000
2. North Ossetia .......... 3088 ...................... 6,50,000
3. South Ossetia ......... 1505 ...................... 1,00,000
4. Chechnya ............... 7350 ..................... 12,00,000
5. Ingushetia ................ 250 ....................... 3, 00,000
6. Tatar Stan ............... 2650 .................... 36,40,000
7. Dagestan ................ 1946 ..................... 17,92,000

The above areas had been snatched from Iran and other local chieftains. They have never accepted Russian occupation and have been fighting for their independence for the last 100-200 years intermittently.

The liberation Movements were headed by Sheikh Mansur (1783) Bablettaymev (1803-1832), Tasho Haji (1832-1840) Imam Shamil (1803-1832). Basna Gor (1816-64) Ilmi bek Haji (1878) Zakir Dadev (1996) and Shamil Basayer (1999-2000)

This is about Chechnya and Ingushetia. In Abkhazia, Arzanba is fighting since 1993. Shamil Peoples Front is fighting for Daghestan. In Tataristan, Mongol Prince Berke Khan embraced Islam consequently all the Mongols and Tartars embraced Islam. They ruled over Russia for 300 years. They are known as Golden Horde in history.


Albania

It is located in Eastern Europe on the Adriatic coast opposite to Italy. Its length is 215 miles, width 90 miles in the South and 50-60 miles in the North. Its total area is 11,100 sq. miles. Its population in 1992 was 3,360,000. Principal religion is Islam. In September 1989, its population was 32,49,136 having 75 per cent Muslims. Urban population was 34 per cent in 1985, capital Tirana 2,26,000, Duress 79,000, Shkodra 76,000, Elbasani 78,000 and Vlora 68,000. Official language is Albanian. Islam spread in the area through the efforts of Turks and other Muslims. The headquarters of mystic sect, Bekhtashi was in Albania and was strongest in Berati, Elbasani in the South. The Muslims belong to Sunnite school of thought. It has an extremely narrow and underdeveloped base for industrialization. It also has the lowest income per person in Europe, development work has been undertaken in the field of oil, natural gas, coal exploration and electricity.

The population increased rapidly since 1945. The position is as under.

1945-11,15,000,
1960-16,26,000,
1991-33,00,000(est.)

Albania is rich in minerals with prospects of gold, silver, copper, chromite and mangnesite. After 1945, textile mills were established in Tirana and Berati, vegetable and fruit canneries in Elbasani, Shkodra and Berati, tanneries and fish canneries in Vlora, a sugar refinery in Korca, and an iron and steel mill at Elbasani, a rubber factory at Durresi.

SPREAD OF ISLAM

Islam was introduced through occupation of Albania by Ottoman Caliphate in 1381, the first important legendary personality was Skander Beg.

The administration of the Caliphate created an atmosphere of merit and talent. Thus conversion to Islam was the road to power for the ambitious and talented people. Eleven Prime Ministers (Grand Viziers) out of 49 during 1453-1623 under Ottoman Caliphate were Albanians. The most energetic and talented prime ministers (during 1665-1710) were Ahmed Koprulu, Mohammed Koprulu and Mehmood Koprulu who checked the decline of the Turkish Empire for about 60 years.

Organised attempts were made since 1649. Many conversions were on the surface. At first the Muslims strengthened their grip over the state with force. The concerted efforts about the new converts, administration of justice, encouragement to the talent and merit were the main reasons which helped the Albanian Muslims to remain steadfast despite the ruthless efforts of the first atheist government of Enver Hoxa to root out religion. Mosques and churches were locked. After the end of the communist area in 1991, Albanians removed the statue of Enver Hoxa, the dead bodies of Ever Hoxa and 12 other communists were exhumed and thrown into the graveyard for the common people in 1993. The weight of communist literature concerning Marx, Engles, Lenin and Enver Hoxa was of 1000 tons. It was converted into paper pulp and was used for making new paper and card board and was auctioned in the open market. The mosques and religious schools which had been closed were re-opened. There are some 1,500 boys and girls studying the Holy Quran and Islam. In Tirana, the capital, 200 girls have taken admission in the religious school, some 1,000 students have gone to Turkey for higher Islamic education at the expense of Turkey. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan have also offered them scholarships. The grand mosque of Haji Ethem constructed in 1821 at Skander Beg Square is again humming with religious activities.

Albania is a member of the O.I.C.


Bosnia

Bosnia is situated in Eastern Europe on the Adriatic Sea opposite to Italy and north of Albania. Its capital is Sarajevo. In 1981 its population was 374,500. The second big City is Mostar whose population is 48,000. The total population of the country in 1981 was 21,24,000. In 1999, it was 26,52,240. The word Bosnia means Uncertainty.

It is heavily forested. The timber from the forest is supplemented by abundant supplies of lignite, brown coal, iron, siderite, limonite, iron ore, copper, manganese, lead, zinc, chromites, mercury, silver, bauxite, salt and petroleum. The hydroelectric resources were developed during 1950,s. Corn, wheat, sugar beets, hogs, cattle and horses are raised in many parts of the country.

Islam was introduced in the area in1436 by Turks. It remained under Muslim rule since 1389. The most significant aspect of the Bosnian Muslims is when they declare themselves as Muslims, they do not identify themselves as Serb or Croat. In fact, after accepting Islam, one belongs to the Nation of Islam and have no concern with any linguistic or cultural entity.

Some centuries old Education Centre Husrobeg was established in Sarajevo (From Urdu Turkish '' Sarai'' means inn) some 460 years ago. It is now like a regular grammar school.


Macedonia

Republic of Macedonia was part of Yugoslavia. It became independent in 1991 through a referendum. Its population in 1981 was 20,00,000. There is also a province of Macedonia in Greece and another province in Bulgaria showing the same titles of Macedonia.

Its capital is Skopje with a population 4, 64000. the language is Macedonian.

Its natural resources include gold, copper, lead zinc, chromites, asbestos, silver, antimony, sulphur, lignite and iron. After 1945, serious efforts were made to export natural resources.

There are two international highways besides other roads.
1) Highway of Borhterhood & Unity-from Italy to Zaghreb Belgrade (Serbia) to Skpje, Salonika and Athens.
2) The Adriatic Highway which designed to join the Brotherhood Unity Highway at Skopje.

All the three Macedonians are designated as underdeveloped but efforts are being made to develop them. Alexander the Great (336-332 B.C) who conquered Middle East and Paksitan belonged to Macedonia.
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Europe under Muslim rule - Part III


Dr.Mohsin Farooqi



Spread of Islam in Europe

As regards spread of Islam, I quote here an excerpt from "The Social Structure of Islam by Reuben Levy, Prof. of Persian at the Cambridge University.

"It was rarely that they (Muslims) enforced Islam upon their newly acquired subjects, to whom, as a rule, they proved as tolerant masters except in Hungary where Ottoman occupation was purely military and Islam never took hold. The inhabitants of conquered lands, whether form political motives or out of conviction, eagerly embraced the faith (Islam) of the dominant race. Indeed the Muslims of Bosnia, Bulgaria and Albania came to be known as highly fanatical devotees as the factor dividing them from their fellow countrymen though they were of the same blood."


Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan is situated in the Mt. Caucasus region on the coast of Caspian Sea. Its area is 40,000 square miles. It used to be a part of the Azerbaijan province of Iran. However, Russia conquered it in 1813. It became independent in 1992 after the fall of Soviet Union.

Baku city with a population of 1,200,000 is the capital of the country. It has vast deposits of oil, besides natural gas, iron ore, Alunite, Copper, Limestone, clay and salt.

Baku is connected with neighbouring states and Iran through three railway lines. Oil is transported to foreign countries through a pipeline which through Georgia, Armenia and Iran. There are cotton and silk units, besides fruit canning, fish, and meat processing industries in the country. Tea and rice are also included among the major crops.

Azerbaijan came under Islamic influence since its conquest by Muslim forces during the rule of Ottoman Ghani (RTA). The Muslims are 93.4 per cent of the total population of 7,676,953, according to the 1999 census.


Kazakhstan

Located in the east of Russian Federation, it is spread over an area of 2,766,603 square kilometres. In 1975, its population was 12,850,000. The Muslims were 68 per cent of the total population. Area-wise it is the largest state after Russia and is extending from Caspian Sea to China. Its area is almost equal to that of India as the latter is spread over area of 3,280,000 square kilometres.

Four rivers, Ili, Ural, Sir Darya, and Irtysh, passe through the country irrigating lands at a large scale. Its capital is Alma Ata (meaning father of apples) which is a beautiful garden city lying at the foot of a mountain. Two other known cities are Balkjash and Karaganda.

Kazakhistan has vast deposits of coal, oil, iron, tin and copper. Fish canning and livestock are important industries. It is also known as the Apple County as its apples are famous throughout Russia for their colour, size, aroma and taste.

It is centre of Russian film Industry. Other industries are textiles, flour, sugar and meat-packing.

Kazakhs are great fighters, 34,000 of their soldiers had been awarded various military medals.

In the World War II, 49 of them were awarded the title of "Hero of Soviet Union." Nuclear weapons of the Soviet Union were used to be stored in Kazakhistan.

It was an independent country when Russians started an organized aggression in 1713 and conquered it in 1819. It was made a part of Turkistan. In 1920, it was granted an autonomous republic status. In 1936, it was made a Union Republic.

Under the Soviet regime, Muslim religious affairs were in the control of the Muslim Religious Board for central Asia and Kazakhistan with its headquarters in Tashkent.


Kirghizistan

Kirghizistan is located in Central Asia in the north of Kazakhistan on the east Chinese province of Sinkiang (Chinese Turkistan). Its area is 76,640square.miles and population is 4,291,000, according to 1989 census. Bashkek is its capital. The people are nomadic with strong tribal traditions. In 1975, its population was 2,933,000. The Muslim percentage was 92 per cent.

The economy depends upon livestock. Grains, cotton, sugar beets are major crops while Kenaf (jute like) hemp, apples, grapes and tobacco are also produced. The state is a major source of coal supplies to Russian industries. Seventy per cent of the state production based on industry that produces many consumer and industrial goods.

The Kirghizistan University had been founded in 1951 as a poly technical institute in Bashkek.

Efforts are being made to settle the nomadic people. In 1975, there were 47 districts and eight big towns. The most important highway is the Great Kirghizistan Highway which connects Bashkek and Kashghar in China, and Osh in southern Kirghizia. Branch lines connect Osh with Central Asian railway and trans-Siberian railway. More than 17 hydro-electric stations have been developed in the state which came under Russian rule in 1868. In 1917, it was granted national autonomy, while in 1926 it was made an autonomous republic. In 1936, it was elevated to the status of a Union Republic.


Tajikistan

Located in Central Asia in the south of Afghanistan, Tajkistan is spread over 13,448square.kilometres. According to the 1975 census, its population was 2,900,000. It neighbours east China, north Kirghzia and west Uzbekistan. Being situated on Pamirs Range, it is Called "Roof Of the world".

A vast majority of the population is Msulim. Persian is the official language. Apart from mountains, there are fertile valleys of River Vaksh, Syr Darya, Zerzvshan and Ferghana. Its capital is Dushanbe. Cotton and sugarcane are the major crops, while cattle breeding is the main occupation of the people. Hydro-electricity is the main source of income which they want to export to Pakistan and India. The heavy industry located in the state and the neighbouring countries is based on its rich mineral deposits. Fruits, lead, cotton, silk and zinc are the main exports.

Up to 1928, it was a part of Emirate of Bokhara and Turkistan. It was conquered by Soviet Union after bloody battles. In December 1929, it was made a Soviet Republic. However, in 1991, it became an independent country and a member of the UN and the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC).

Islamic volunteers have initiated a movement to remove the government. A few thousand people have been killed in the skirmishes.


Turkmenistan

It is located in the west of Russia, in the south of Afghanistan and Iran, in the east of Uzbekistan, Its area is 489,884square.kilometres. Its population was 2,158,000 in 1975 as the Muslims constituted 90 per cent of it. Its capital is Ashkhabad. About 85 per cent of the area is desert known as Kara Kum (black sands) but there are fertile valleys of the Amu Darya, the Tejdan and the Murgav rivers on the shores of Caspian Sea. Its agricultural products are cotton, grain and oil-seeds, minerals include oil, coal, sulphur, barite, and lime. It has huge deposits of gas which it wants to export to Afghanistan, Pakistan and India.

Turkmenistan is interested in building a highway from Ashkabad to Gwadur in order to connect itself with a seaport. A plan in this regard has been prepared by Pakistan and Turkmenistan. But, due to Afghan crisis, its implementation is being delayed. Gwadur is being developed as a big port to serve the commercial interests of Central Asian states. The state was conquered by Russia during 1869-1885. In 1925, it was made a republic. The countryside has been provided with radio, telephone and cinema houses, and libraries and schools. Extensive irrigation system including Kara Kum canal project has been taken up to extend agriculture to the desert area.


Uzbekistan

It is located in the north of Kazakhistan and in the south of Afghanistan. Its area is 410,979square. kilometres and population is 20 million having 88 per cent Muslim majority, according to 1989 census. Its capital is Tashkent.

Russian forces occupied Tashkent in 1865, Samarqand and Bukhara in 1868. In 1934, Russians got a firm control over the area. In December.1923, Uzbek Republic was formed.

In 1930, the irrigated area was increased. In 1955, a 200 kilometres long canal linked the Zeravshan river with Kashka river. The largest water reservoir in Soviet Union known as Kuttakurgan is situated in Uzbekistan.

It produced 67 per cent of the cotton grown in Soviet Union and half of the rice, fruit orchards, silk worms and grapes of the total production of the former Soviet Union. Wheat and maize are also cultivated.

Industrial development has been achieved in the field of ginning, textiles, leather, farm machinery, chemical fertilizers, coal, gas and oil refining. A major gold field has been explored. Abundant resources of copper, silver, petroleum, iron and lead etc. have also found.

For the first time the message of Islam was conveyed by Ubaidullah bin Zaid in 674 AC (74 A.H.). The second attempt was made by Qutaibah bin Muslim who established Islam firmly in Bokhara. The first Muslim governor appointed was Nasar bin Sayyar who controlled a number of rebellions against the Arab rule. Up to 892 A.C., the whole of Centra Asia was conquered and Bokhara became the capital of a very big province. In 1121 A.C., Arsalan Khan Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم bin Suleman constructed a big education centre namely school of Meer Arab. A minaret of the institution still exists.


Turkey

South east corner of Europe and western extremity of Asia, Turkey is located over 780,580 square kilometres. According to the 1992 census, its population was 5,9640,000. The Muslim percentage was 99 per cent. Its capital is Ankara with a population of 1,500,000, while the second big city Istanbul 2,500,000. Its agricultural products are wheat, barely, maiz, potatoes, fruits, cotton, sugar beet and tobacco.

Turkey under the leadership of Ottomans had the most chequered history from 1330-1912. For nearly 550 years, Eastern European countries, South Russia as well as Middle East and North Africa were within their empire which was one of the biggest empires of the world. The decline started in 1878 and completed in 1922. Turkey now has a very small portion of Europe known as Eastern Thrace.

The main reason behind the downfall of Turkey and other Muslim countries is that they have ceased to think themselves as Muslims and started identifying themselves as Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Syurians, Egypians, Iraqis, Libyans, Algerians, Punjabis, Bengalis, Sindhis, and Mohajirs. The Natin of Islam is the wealthiest in the world from money, natural resources and manpower point of view. Kazakhistan and Pakistan possess the technical know-how and have developed nuclear weapons. But the nation is devoid of a visionary leadership. Therefore, we belong to the most backward people of the world. Having a manpower of more than one billion people and possessing atomic bombs and missiles we cannot defeat Israel with a population of only 4,400,000 Jews. Turkey has a Kurdish problem, Kurds do not accept Turks as their leaders. The problem also existed in Syria, Iraq, and Iran. The Kurds want their own independent state.

The newly independent six Central Asian states are looking towards Turkey for political and economic leadership. But the question is:

"Is Tureky in a position to deliver the goods?"

Turkey is still predominantly an agricultural country as two-thirds people depend upon land for living. They produce wheat, barley, maize, rye, rice etc. It also produces the best tobacco, the chief export of Turkey. The second item is Raisin. Sheep and cattle are raised in the countryside. Iron ore is produced in north-eastern Turkey. The country is the largest exporter of chrome. There are two steel miles which produce iron to meet in domestic requirements.

There are textiles, woollen and cotton fabrics, silk and paper mills. It has 13 sugar factories. Country's power requirements are met through hydro as well as thermal sources.


Kosovo

Since long the super powers of Europe, Britain, France and Russia were instigating rebellions and conspiracies against Ottoman Caliphate. Turkey was declared "Sickman of Europe" and the problem was designated as "Eastern Question" with the objective to expulse Turkey from Europe

Since 1878, Turks started withdrawing from Eastern Europe. The European powers were demarcating and re-demarcating boundaries of new countries based on power politics and vested interest. People of Kosovo being Muslims and Albanians wanted to be amalgamated with Albania or to remain independent. But despite their protests, they were merged with Serbia, later on with Yugoslavia. Since then the struggle for freedom was continuing. In order to check it, Kosovo was given regional autonomy but to no avail.

In 1990-91, regional autonomy was withdrawn, use of Albanian language was banned and mass unemployment of Kosovars was started. Consequently, a militant struggle by the Kosovar Liberation Army was initiated. To crush the struggle, the Serbian army let loose the state terrorism. More than a million people migrated through jungles, on foot, on horse-carriages and tractors to Mecedonia, Albania, even Montenegro and Bosnia.

European powers and later on the UN interfered and started bombardment Serbia so that Serbia may be compelled to withdraw from Kosovo. After 43 days of bombardment, Serbia agreed to withdraw form Kosovo and hand it over to the United Nations.

Now Kosovo is under the UN administration working for rehabilitation of the people, building houses, roads and institutions, trying to create friendly relations between Kosovo's and Serbs. The future of the state is yet uncertain. As a majority of the population has migrated to neighbouring areas, the country is giving a deserted look.


http://www.jamatdawa.org/english/art...islam_iiii.htm
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Oud 7 oktober 2002, 17:10   #4
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EUROPE UNDER MUSLIM RULE - Part IV

Dr. Mohsin Farooqi takes a look at the history of Muslim rule in Europe
to remind the Muslim Ummah of its glorious past


Rome

In 846 a fleet form the African coast sailed up to Tiber and the Muslim warriors actually entered Rome. The invaders were driven back. But three years later another attack was launched by Aghlabid monarch Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم -1, who sent a fleet form Sardinia. The ships cast anchor 16 miles from Rome and prepared to land troops. By the efforts of Pope Leo IV an alliance of maritime countries was hastily formed to counter the threatened attack and defenders aided by a great storm were able to route the Muslim fleet at the battle of Ostia. In 813 Muslims attacked Civi Vecchia in the neighbourhood of Rome.


WESTERN COAST OF ITALY

The district of Genoa and Pisa were subject of constant attack form Sardinia particularly during the reign of Al-Mujahid.


NORTHERN ITALY

In 906 Muslims crossed French border at Mont Cenis made themselves masters of Novalese Abbey in Suse on the Piedmontese frontier. In 911 Muslims were masters of all the lines of communications between France and Italy. They made frequent descents into the plains of Piedmont and Montferrat. In 935 some adventurers from Africa attacked Montferrat, massacred the males and made it the centre of their numerous expeditions as well as place of refuge from the enemy. In the later period Italian coasts were the constant target of Muslim ravages.

Muslims conquered Piedmont, Montferrat and Liguria. They were so much powerful that local prince Adalbert and Pope John XI had to request the Muslims of Fraxinet for help against Otto, the German Emperor. St. Mayenl was captured by Muslims in 972. The Amirate of Fraxinet remained for about 70 years.

Al-Mujahid became the master of Denia and Balearic Islands and became terror to the Inhabitants of Corsica, Sardinia, Pisa and Genoa.

Turks about 1456 crossed the frontier of Italy and ravaged the region of Friuli in North East Italy. Venice was subservient to Muslims long ago.

In 1481, Otranto in South Italy was captured through a naval attack. It remained under Muslims for a short period. In 1606 the country around Gradisca in North East Italy was conquered by Turks.

The incursions into Italy by sea continued until 1832.


MALTA

Malta fell to Muslim attacks even before 652 A.D. The hold on Malta was stronger than on Sicily and Muslim influence was more firmly established as the Maltese language is a dialect of Arabic. The island was lost to Islam in 1090. Turks led a naval attack on Malta in1565. It was attacked again in the same year but Turks could not conquer it although they were masters of Mediterranean Sea. It remained under Muslims for 438 years.


Mediterranean Sea and European Coasts

In 1538, the Turkish Navy defeated the combined naval force of Spain, Venice (Italy) and Pope, a number of times. This made them master of Mediterranean Sea. Muslims from North Africa ravaged the coasts of Spain, Italy and France and even occasionally of England and Ireland devastating the cities and villages and carrying away booty and captives. The city of Bristol in England used to be the main target. The coasts of Portugal at Madeira was roamed by Algerians even upto 1670.


MONACO

It is a tiny independent state on French Riviera having an area of 368 acres and population of 25,000. It is nine miles east of Nice a town on Southern coast of France.

The small principality was under Amirate of Fraxinet during 889-975. In the later period it was attacked by Muslims several times.


POLAND

Poland was under Muslim Rule when Golden Horde conquered Cracow and Rzeszow. It is probable that they controlled the area for about two centuries, 1272-1453. In 1672, Turkey attacked Poland and the city of Kaminiec, the capital of Podolia was captured. In 1673 and 1675 Turks were defeated but in 1676 Poles under Soblieski and Russians were defeated and the enlarged province of Podolia was added to the Turkish Empire.

An army of Tatars from Crimea overran Poland in 1688 and defeated a Polish army at Sereth now in Ukraine. In 1689 combined armies of Poland and Russia were defeated. In 1698, Podolia was freed form Turkish Rule. But in 1792, the River Dniester was the boundary line which shows that some Polish territory remained under Muslims. But the matter needs further Investigation. The period comes to 120 years.

The terror of Muslim invaders along the old Danube highway hang over Europe for centuries. There was Turks Tax in order to organize resistance or pacify the invaders with bribes. Poland, Bohemia (Czechoslovakia) and Austria had to fight against them constantly.


ROMANIA

The occupation of the country starts from 1393, When Silistra and Widdin were captured by Bayazid 1, Sultan of Turkey. After the battle of Nicopolis vast country between Drave and Danube was devastated. It remained as a Turkish province upto 1828.

Since 1829, Romania was nominally under Turkey. In 1867 two Danubain principalities united into one state Romania. In 1868 a prince was invested as hereditary ruler of the new State by the Sultan of Turkey. It continued under suzerainty of Turkey, Romania was to be an independent state in 1914. It remained under Muslim Rule for 521 years. It had 68 percent Muslim population. Muslims have a Mufiate at Constanta.


Russia, Ukraine And Belo Russia

Nearly the Whole of European Russia remained under Muslim influence for centuries. The southern areas of Azerbaijan, Daghestan, Georgia and Armenia were conquered by Muslim in 641 A.D., and remained under Arabs, Persians and Turks upto 1878 except for intermittent periods. The main land Russia was under Golden Horde (Tatars) from 1240 to 1552. The Crimean area north and east of Black Sea remained under Tatars (1239-1274) and Ottoman Empire(1475-1792).

The Golden Horde territories included most of European Russia from Urals to the Carpathians. It is difficult to find out how far East and North in to Siberia, the lands of Golden Horde extended, In the South Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Northern shores of Caspian and the frontier with Iran was its approximate border. In other words European or Little Tartary comprising most of Russian governments of Astrakhan, Ekaterinoslav, Cossak provinces and Crimea.

Under the Rule of Berke 1255-66, Batu's brother, the Golden Horde became more autonomous an evolution partially caused by Berke's conversion to Islam. This opened Russia to Muslim influences both cultural and commercial. Though Berke's successors were not Muslims the final conversion of Khan Uzbek (1312-42) confirmed Islamic preponderance with Golden Horde. An other source says that they embraced Islam in 1272 A.D.

Serai Batu was established in 1243, thirty miles below Stalingrad. Serai Berke has beautiful mosque, centrally heated houses and public baths.

Another source says they conquered Moscow and Novgorod. Russian princes had to receive a patent (yarlyk) from the Khan. In the later part of 14th century internecine wars weakened the Golden Horde.

Kazan and Crimea :- After the downfall of Golden Horde, the Tatars form 15th century formed the Khanate of Kazan which was finally subdued and annexed by Russian in 1552. the Crimean Khanate was formed in 1239 A.D. in 1475 South Crimea was conquered by Turks who in 1478 established suzerainty over the crimena Khanate. In 1792 Crimea was annexes to Russia.


Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and Daghestan

Besides mainland Russia a number of Soviet Rebuplics remained under Muslim rule since 641 A.D. Muslim advanced into Armenia and within a short period, in the territory lying between the Caucasus and the Taurus, the inhabitants eagerly embraced Islam and there the faith made rapid strides. The area included Azerbaijan and Daghestan. It faced difficulties in Armenia. But Muslim hold continued for centuries except during intermittent periods, It remained under Ommayads and Abbasides later on under Persian Empire. In 1393 Armenia came under Turkish control.

In 1568, Turkey sent an army of 25,000 through Black Sea to Azov. They were joined by 30,000 Tatars form Crimea to attack Astrakhan. The scheme was to join Rivers Don and Volga through a canal. The attack was repulsed by Russians. Before 1590, Turkey conquered Kingdom of Georgia, Azerbaijan and Daghestan on the Caspian Sea. They remained part of Turkish empire upto 1878.

Golden Horde was the only power which particularly from the East really conquered and occupied Russia. The yoke of Tatar Government remained on the necks of Russians for two hundred and fifty years. It is not only an important chapter of Russian history but also of Poland and Lithunia. It resulted in the population of Turkish tribes on the banks of River Volga and Western Siberia. The scattered population of Tatars is still found in these areas. The most convincing reason of their existence was their faith in Islam. The cultural impact of Tatars upon Russia can be found out in past centuries of Russian history. They are apparent on several aspects of administration, militarism, ways and manners and on the relations of the ruler and the ruled.


UKRAINE

Parts of Ukraine were under Muslim Rule since 1237, under Tatars the Golden Horde and later on under Khanate of Crimea. The whole of northern coast of Black Sea was under Turkey since 1475.

After 300 years of Muslim Rule, a number of battles were fought between Muslims and Russians for the occupation of the area. In 1774 Russia became capable of having two areas on the coast of Black Sea once considered as a Turkish lake. In 1792, after another battle, River Dniester became the boundary between Russia and Turkey. In 1812 River Truth became the boundary but Turkey maintained a part of province of Moldavia.

In 1856 a small part of Bessarbia another province was ceded to Russia but it was taken back and was reannexed with the Turkish Empire. In 1878 a part of Bessarbia was lost to Russia, thus ending Muslim Rule, which remained for about 600 years.


BELO RUSSIA

As the Golden Horde ruled form the Urals to the Carpathian, the area of Belo Russia was definitely under Muslim Rule. The period for which the area remained as such was from 13th century to 15th century a period of 200 years. Some areas of present Belo Russia might have remained under Muslim Rule during the period of Khanate of Kazan or Crimea or even Turkey.

About the Golden Horde the Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم an Chronicles, acknowledged by Western writers, give but the scantiest account. Form 1237, the Tatars crossed Volga, till 1240 Russia and in 1241-1242 Poland, Hungary and Dalmatia (Yougoslavia), in 1242 against Bulgaria an went there in the winter of 1242-43 through Wallachia (Romania) and Moldavia (Ukraine). Their army was never defeated anywhere in Russian or Eastern Europe. Of the lands ravaged in the years 1237-1242 only Russia remained subject to eh Tatars. In 1243, the Gand Pince Jaroslav submitted himself in Batu's Camp and was confirmed by him to the rank of "Senior over all the princes of Russian people". In 1250 the independent Price (King after 1257) Daniel of Glacia had to be confirmed in the same way and do homage to Khan…

According to report, given by Djuzdjani he was said to have secretly adopted Islam…… As regards the story that he was Christian, the document says that "this story may well have arisen through confusion".

A strong minority of Tatars was converted to Islam during Batu Khan's period or even before. The next successor to Batu Khan was Berke who was a Muslim even "before accession to throne, was staunch Muslim so much so that" no swine's flesh was allowed to be eaten in his camp. Berke was instructed in the Quran while youth in Khodjand by a theologian of the town".

The theory that the immediate successor of Berke were not Muslims is also wrong. The document says that, "Berke left no family so that throne passed to Batus grandson Monge-Timur … .. It is difficult to estimate how much he did as a Muslim to further the culture of Islam among his Mongols. ... Not only the Khan himself but several of his brothers said to have adopted Islam, "Moreover the grand daughter of Batu had been given in marriage to Sultan Nasir in 1320. The princess journeyed from Saray to Alexandria, where she arrived in April 1320 occupied nearly six months. During 1242-46, Khoresmian Moslem, Mahmud Yalavach was Advisor, another Muslim, Abdur-Rahman also became regent's Chief Advisor.

The Russian princes were vassal to Tatar rulers. The following words show their actual position. "Oh, more evil than evil itself is the Tatar honour". Comments the Galician chronicler, "Daniel, the great prince, the lord of the Russian land, now kneels and calls himself Khan's slave". A few months later after Daniel's pilgrimage to Saray, Prince Michael of Chernigor went to see Batu. He proved less fortunate than his rival".


http://www.jamatdawa.org/english/art...r_islam_iv.htm
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Oud 7 oktober 2002, 17:18   #5
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Wat we na lezing van 4 bovenstaande artikels alvast kunnen concluderen is dat we de moslims zeker niet moeten bekijken als een stelletje onschuldige sukkelaars die eeuwen lang door Europa gekoloniseerd werden en tegenover wie we nu een historische schuld zouden moeten inlossen.

Dat verhaaltje dat men ons van bovenaf soms wil laten slikken kunnen we immers gerust naar de prullenmand verwijzen.

De zo beruchte kruistochten kunnen in het boven geschetste kader van de vroegere moslim-invasies van Europa eerder als onsamenhangende en weinig effectieve 'speldeprikken' naar de 'muzulmaanse vijand' toe bezien worden.
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Oud 8 oktober 2002, 19:16   #6
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Citaat:
Wat we na lezing van 4 bovenstaande artikels alvast kunnen concluderen is dat we de moslims zeker niet moeten bekijken als een stelletje onschuldige sukkelaars die eeuwen lang door Europa gekoloniseerd werden en tegenover wie we nu een historische schuld zouden moeten inlossen.
heel die uitleg om de Europese kolonisatie (laten we het nu voor de gelegenheid even geen uitbuiting noemen) goed te praten? Ze ZIJN toch eeuwenlang door het Westen gekoloniseerd, of niet soms?
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Oud 8 oktober 2002, 22:24   #7
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Citaat:
Oorspronkelijk geplaatst door Kotsmos
Citaat:
Wat we na lezing van 4 bovenstaande artikels alvast kunnen concluderen is dat we de moslims zeker niet moeten bekijken als een stelletje onschuldige sukkelaars die eeuwen lang door Europa gekoloniseerd werden en tegenover wie we nu een historische schuld zouden moeten inlossen.
heel die uitleg om de Europese kolonisatie (laten we het nu voor de gelegenheid even geen uitbuiting noemen) goed te praten? Ze ZIJN toch eeuwenlang door het Westen gekoloniseerd, of niet soms?
Geef de voorbeelden eens, en dan graag met jaartallen en landen en regio's, zoals onze islamitische vriend hierboven zo sprekend heeft gedaan.

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Oud 9 oktober 2002, 11:55   #8
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Citaat:
Oorspronkelijk geplaatst door Kotsmos
Citaat:
Wat we na lezing van 4 bovenstaande artikels alvast kunnen concluderen is dat we de moslims zeker niet moeten bekijken als een stelletje onschuldige sukkelaars die eeuwen lang door Europa gekoloniseerd werden en tegenover wie we nu een historische schuld zouden moeten inlossen.
heel die uitleg om de Europese kolonisatie (laten we het nu voor de gelegenheid even geen uitbuiting noemen) goed te praten? Ze ZIJN toch eeuwenlang door het Westen gekoloniseerd, of niet soms?
Wat was er toch mis met de koloniseringen?
Dat is toch gewoon survival of the fittest?
En als we zelf the fittest zijn, moeten we ons daar toch niet voor schamen?
__________________
Ik ben Limburger, Belg en Europeaan, maar ik woon in Vlaanderen.
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